To

Yin-Jeh and Yireh

Study on the Organic Agriculture in Germany and its Implications for Taiwan

Chang-Ju Huang-Tzeng

Acknowledgments

This study owes deep thanks to many people who have helped me complete this work. My first thanks go to Council of Agriculture (COA), Executive Yuan, Taiwan, ROC and Sino-German Association for Economic and Social Research, which supported this research. I would like to express my sincere appreciation to Dr. H. J. Jee, and Prof. Schug of University of Bonn, Dr. Yuen-Ho Lee, Mr. Po-En Huang and Mr. Mu-Chin Lee of COA for their kindly and helpful coordination.

During the stage of materials collection in Germany, Prof. Schade, Dr. Heide Hoffmann, Dr. Matthias Dennhardt, and my former doctoral supervisor Prof. R. C. Agrawal, at Humboldt-University of Berlin, offered me valuable ideas and discussions. The member of staff at International Federation of Organic Movement, Arbeitsgemeinschaft Oekologischer Landbau, and nine main organic farmers‘ associations in Germany provided me with valuable information. Dr. Horst Bauer of Oekoring Brandenburg introduced me to some of organic institutions and farmers and contributed thereby to the interviews. I thank all of them.

I would like to mention my colleagues Mrs. Ya-mei Yu and Ms. Huiya Huang who helped me reformulate this report in English.

I would like to dedicate this study to my husband, Yin-jeh, and my son, Yireh. I thank them for their encouragement, support and patience.

Last but not least, my greatest thanks are due to God.

Chang-Ju Huang-Tzeng

Contents Page

1. Introduction

1.1 An Overview of Organic Agriculture

1.2 The Problems that Taiwan Confronts

1.3 The Objectives and Scope of this Study

2. The Organic Agriculture in Germany

2.1 The Development of Organic Agriculture in

Germany

2.2 Organizations

2.2.1 Farmers‘ Associations

2.2.2 Institutes of Inspection, Extension, and Marketing

2.2.3 National and International Organizations

2.3 Regulation, Control and Labeling

3. Making Taiwan Agriculture Organic and Sustainable

3.1 Present Situation of Organic Agriculture in Taiwan

3.1.1 Production

3.1.2 Marketing

3.1.3 Policy

3.1.4 Institutes

3.2 Prospective and Suggestions of the Development of Organic Agriculture in Taiwan

3.3 Proposal of Setting up Regulation

4. Conclusion

Bibliography	46

Introduction

An Overview of Organic Agriculture

Agricultural production has become industrialized and intensified since World War II. The petrochemical resources, chemical fertilizer, growth regulator and preventive treatments for plants and animals, and the development of machinery, breeding, and genetic engineering are applied in agricultural production. Therefore agricultural output has increased distinctly, and has helped solve the problems with insufficient foodstuffs and population growth. The achievement is known as ‘Green Revolution,’ but it also brings problems. The problems are as follows:

1. Pollution and damage to the environment

Pesticide, Nitrate released from fertilizer, and manure of livestock kept on large scale farms pollute soil and water. Pesticide also pollutes the air, and intensive farming results in soil erosion.

2. Damage to the ecology

The number of species on earth is decreasing as a result of intensive and specialized agricultural production, and human-need-oriented breeding and genetic engineering. Farmland development destroys the environment and makes it unable for local animals to live. The animals, insects, and birds are not only badly affected by pesticide and fertilizers but die from them. Insects, bacteria and fungi become more resistant because of excessive and long-term use of preventive and treatment medicine for diseases & pests. This threatens agriculture even more.

3. Food contamination

Residue of pesticide, fertilizer, medicine for animals, and hormone for plants and animals found in food have been damaging food safety and endangering human health.

4. In developed countries the government is burdened with subsidies for excessive products.

5. Developing countries devote to growing exportable produce to earn foreign exchange, and meanwhile developed countries dump excessive foodstuffs to developing countries. These decrease foodstuffs production and make foodstuffs supply insufficient, and thus cause harm to developing countries.

6. Farmers‘ moving out of rural community due to mechanization of agriculture not only breaks rural society structure but also increases unemployment in the city, and thus causes social problems.

As environmental pollution is accompanied by high economic development, people begin to reflect over the increasingly problem of pollution, which causes the idea of sustainability. Today sustainability has become a significant issue internationally. A workable definition of ‘sustainable agriculture’ is an agriculture that can evolve indefinite toward greater human utility, greater efficiency of resource use, and a balance with the environment that is favorable both to humans and to most other species. (Harwood, 1991) The terms ‘organic,’ ‘ecological,’ ‘low-input,’ ‘biological,’ ‘dynamic,’ or ‘alternative’ agriculture are often mentioned to describe the same idea of agricultural production besides ‘sustainable agriculture.’ People who advocate sustainable agriculture emphasize the need for environmental protection and ecology balance. They also think it important to use natural substances instead of synthetic-chemical ones such as fertilizer, pesticide, and hormone, etc. In the meantime, farm economics is not neglected because if a method of farming is not profitable, it can not be sustainable. (Madden, 1988, p1170)

The term ‘organic agriculture’ can be defined negatively or positively. When defined negatively, organic agriculture is a farming system that does not allow certain ways of farming and certain substances; if defined positively, it is a farming system which can be achieved by following a set of knowledge and some certain rules. It is expected that the definition for organic agriculture will be different with further development.

Gathering information and the opinions about ecological farming from many organic agricultural institutes and experts in the field of organic agriculture, we can sum up the features of the organic agriculture in Germany as follows:

Organic agriculture is a new way of agricultural production.

Organic agriculture guides toward the process of agricultural production.

The ideal organic farm is self-sufficient, so resources and raw materials that are not recycled should be used as little as possible.

Synthetic-chemical fertilizer, mineral fertilizer which is easily solved in water, pesticide, growth regulator, and hormone are forbidden.

Organic farming maintains, and even improves natural productivity of soil.

Organic farming avoids pollution. For example, it keeps underground water from the pollution of Nitrate and pesticide.

In order to prevent species from decreasing and to actualize multi-production and multi-structure, farmers are encouraged to grow a variety of plants and livestock.

Knowledge of genetic engineering is not employed.

The area of the organic farm is proportional to the quantities of livestock, and livestock is kept in a moral way.

To save working opportunities for people in farm villages.

To create a secure existence based on satisfied living conditions and agreeable income for the farmers.

To produce enough foodstuffs which are nutritious and healthful, and are with reasonable prices also.

To make effort to solve world hunger problem.

In order to help with world hunger problem, importing feeds from developing countries should be limited so as to prevent them from insufficient production of foodstuff.

The Problems that Taiwan Confronts

The development of agriculture has certainly favored that of economy; however it has also caused several negative influences on the environment, the ecology, food safety, and soil productivity. The government is also faced with difficulties over agricultural policy. The first problem is that the policy of price support results in surplus of agricultural products. Futhermore, in order to solve the problem of surplus and to enhance farmers‘ income, the government purchases rice, corn and sorghum with support prices. These have made big financial and stock burden for the government. Table 1 presents the status of food administration budget in the Central Government. As shown in the table, in the fiscal year of 1995, NT$10,300 million was spent to support rice price, which was 1% of general budget and 19.97% of budget for agriculture. In the end of 1993 there was 814,000 tons of stock of brown rice, occupying 44.73% of general output of rice in that year . Besides, in order to reduce the excessive production of rice, the government encourages rice field diversion and spends a lot of money on it. It was expected that 190,000 hectares of rice field would be diverted in 1995 . In the fiscal year of 1995 the budget of subsidies for the rice field diversion and for dryland crop was NT$8,406 millions, occupying 0.82 of general budget and 16.30% of budget for agriculture.

In addition, Taiwan will soon join World Trade Organization (WTO), and subsequently the market will have to open for more imported agricultural products, which will make an impact on Taiwan agricultural production. In order to maintain production environment and the structure order of farm villages, a reformation of agriculture is inevitable. Organic agriculture may be an ideal alternative farming practice. Organic agriculture emphasizes extensive farming, so this farming system can also help make less surplus, and reduce finance burden and the pressure of too much stock.

Table 1 Status of food administration budget in central government in 1995

unit: million NT$

Fiscal year	Amount	% of general

budget	% of agricultural budget
General budget	1,029,217	100.00
Agricultural budget	51,586	5.01	100.00
Food administration budget	18,936	1.84	36.71
Subsidy for rice purchase	10,300	1.00	19.97
For rice field diversion	216	0.02	0.42
Subsidy for rice field diversion	4,190	0.41	8.12
Subsidy for dryland crop purchase	4,000	0.39	7.75
Source: Food Ministration in Taiwan, Republic of China, COA, 1994

The Objectives and Scope of this Study

The purpose of this study is to learn the essence of organic agriculture in Germany, including introducing related associations, regulations of supervision, labeling system, and government policy toward organic agriculture. It is hoped that this study may be of any help to the development, legislation, and policy-making of organic agriculture in Taiwan.

In this study, the background of organic agriculture in Taiwan is introduced. Next comes the introduction of Germany organic agriculture, the organizations, and the regulations of supervision. Then, the present status of organic agriculture in Taiwan and suggestions about extension, legislation, and policy-making of organic agriculture is finally presented.

The Organic Agriculture in Germany

The Development of Organic Agriculture in Germany

The first organized and well-defined organic agricultural movement of grower and philosophy in the world was the biodynamic movement in Germany, which arose from a series of lectures given by Rudolf Steiner, the founder of anthroposophy, in 1924 (Harwood, 1990). Organic agriculture began in the 1920s, and then it had been banned by the Nazi government since 1941. It spread after the World War II, and grew up even more quickly in the 1970s. In the early 1990s, the total area of organic farm had been expanding, thanks to the reunification of East and West Germany and the subsidies provided by government.

Table 2 shows the development of organic farming in Germany from 1989 to 1994. In 1989, there were 3,028 organic farms, and the number had increased to 5,275 in 1994 with a growth of 74%, which was 0.86% of total farms. The area of organic farms had increased from 59,734 to 184,725 hectares, which was 1.07% of total agricultural area. The average area of organic farms is increasing and getting bigger than that of general farms.

The main factors in the soaring growth of organic agriculture recently are not only the consumers‘ awareness of environmental protection and their demands for natural and healthy food, but also government subsidies.

According to EC-Extensive Program, all the farms that converted into organic ones from the fiscal year 1989/90 to 1992/93 (Eastern Germany was excluded in the first two years) could receive 300-500 DM/hectare of later finance support. The program was over in 1994/95, but all the organic farms are still supported by the

Table 2 The development of organic farmingA in Germany

Unit: Hectare

Number of	Area	Average area
Year	organic	general	%	organic	general	%	per farm
farms	farms	(A/B	farms	farms	(D/C*	organic	general
(A)	(B)	*100)	(D)	(C)	100)
1989	3,028	685,700	0.44	59,734	11,809,500	0.51	19.73	17.22
1990	3,444	667,200	0.52	76,133	11,791,500	0.65	22.11	17.67
1991	4,003	632,200	0.63	98,621	11,764,700	0.84	24.64	18.61
1992	4,385	614,400	0.71	127,240	11,747,300	1.08	29.02	19.12
1993B	4,941	624,600	0.79	161,726	17,061,600	0.95	32.73	27.32
1994	5,275	610,700	0.86	184,725	17,249,100	1.07	35.02	28.24
A: Only AGOEL members were included.

B: The old and new states are both included since 1993.

Source: ZMP, Verkaufspreise im oekologischen Landbau, 1995

program based on EC Council Agricultural Reform Regulation No. 2078/92. As a result, every state in Germany is flanked by different measures of supporting organic farming. The names, conditions, amount of subsidies, and duration of support vary with every support program. Generally speaking, those farms in conversion are paid more support than converted farms. In some states, only the comprehensively converted or converting farms are to be supported. Some programs support farms according to its topography or quantity of livestock. Some programs offer support only to the farms that belong to AGOEL; while other programs give support in condition that the livestock kept in proportion to farmland. The amount of subsidies also varies with different kinds of crops. The subsidies are 200-550 DM/hectare, 40-450 DM/hectare (cover 300 DM mostly), and 250-1440 (over 1,000 mostly) for crop land, pasture, and perennial crops respectively.

Although most farmers are in favor of these programs, some agricultural scholars doubt about them. Truly, organic production increases thanks to support programs, but producers may not profit from this. It is because that prices usually go down when production increases. Moreover, it is unfair for organic farmers to compete under different supports (Thunke, 1995). Whatever negative opinions there are, the rapid increase of the area of organic farms serves to show the success of support programs. However, future development of organic agriculture needs further observation and assessment.

Table 3 is the comparison of the production of, and prices and returns received by the organic and conventional farms. It is found that the output of wheat and potato from organic farms and from conventional farms are very different. The former is from one half to two thirds of the latter, and the price of the former can be three times as much as the latter. As to milk, there is only a slight difference in price and output. The organic farmers‘ return per hectare and per family labor was higher than conventional farms since 1987/8 and 1985/86 respectively, but the difference in return is getting smaller each year.

Table 4 displays the distribution of organic businesses－ farms, processors, and importers－ in different states. As can be seen from Table 4, the total number of organic farms in Eastern Germany is much less than in Western Germany. However, owing to the continuation of cooperation farms in Eastern Germany, its average area of organic farm (159.82 hectares) is higher than that of Western Germany (18.82 hectares). In Eastern Germany the ratios of number and area of organic farms to total farms and total agricultural area are 3.23% and 2.67% respectively, which are higher than that of Western Germany: 0.93% and 1.08% respectively. In Western Germany, the number of business of processing and importing is 13.85 times as many as that in Eastern Germany. Obviously, the management of business used to be under the influence of communism, and that is why Eastern Germany has not been able to catch up with Western Germany in organic business.

Table 3 Comparison of the production of, and prices and returns received

by the organic and conventional farms

Production	Prices	Returns (DM)
Fiscal	Wheat	Potato	Milk	Wheat	Potato	Milk	Per	Per
year	(ton/ha)	(ton/ha)	(kg/cow)	(DM/ton)	(DM/ton)	(DM/ton)	hectare	family worker
Orga.	Conv.	Orga.	Conv.	Orga.	Conv.	Orga.	Conv.	Orga.	Conv.	Orga.	Conv.	Orga.	Conv.	Orga.	Conv.
1983/84	32.1	53.0	103.9	264.4	3595	4940	86.36	48.87	63.95	25.84	66.38	64.07	680	1,019	14,644	24,300
1984/85	38.8	58.7	141.6	315.5	3499	4661	90.14	43.70	51.15	16.22	64.54	61.81	901	1,173	19,014	27,481
1985/86	38.9	56.5	165.0	290.0	3576	4378	94.25	41.63	49.82	16.07	66.77	63.15	1,181	1,288	22,796	22,330
1986/87	37.0	54.0	190.0	282.0	3714	4373	97.84	40.56	52.19	20.24	79.12	62.09	1,334	1,349	26,025	23,487
1987/88	35.7	55.0	144.0	257.0	3552	3972	101.15	37.38	54.45	20.43	75.72	62.71	1,142	1,034	21,122	18,826
1988/89	36.4	58.4	186.0	288.0	3779	4140	98.97	37.10	52.95	18.87	71.49	68.27	1,225	1,222	26,478	23,874
1989/90	37.8	54.2	177.0	272.0	3770	4184	84.61	38.34	59.31	29.02	74.01	68.56	1,456	1,225	32,967	24,252
1990/91	36.9	58.7	161.0	289.0	3881	4683	102.58	32.88	59.90	19.20	71.21	65.24	1,321	1,152	32,871	28,574
1991/92	39.2	64.4	173.0	274.0	4024	4801	87.91	32.76	58.08	19.00	73.13	63.84	1,217	1,009	30,047	24,189
1992/93	35.3	60.9	160.0	309.0	3915	4990	86.18	33.26	55.22	16.50	71.27	63.75	1,242	1,150	31,414	27,272
1993/94	38.3	61.0	171.0	324.0	4044	4886	85.84	26.24	62.63	16.59	68.91	61.67	1,133	1,084	29,570	26,226
Source: Agrarbericht, Das Bundesministerium fuer Ernaehrung, Landwirtschaft und Forsten, 1986~1995

Table 4 The structure of the organic agricultural business in Germany

(1994.1.1)

Number of organic businesses	Area (hectare)	% of	% of
State	Total	A	AB & AC	B	BC	C	under organic farming	of organic farms**	no. farm to general	area

(D) to general
Baden-Wrtbrg	2,054	1,359	300	370	16	9	29,319	32,627	1.81	2.01
Bayern	1,930	1,466	87	363	9	5	38,179	38,763	0.69	1.12
Bremen	17	2	-	14	1	-	42	42	-	-
Hamburg	56	9	-	30	11	6	206	235	-	-
Hessen	491	314	38	136	1	2	12,866	12,903	0.87	1.64
Niedersachsen	701	450	37	202	8	4	16,473	18,234	1.24	0.61
Nordrhein-Wf	685	402	24	246	9	4	7,631	8,083	0.59	0.49
Rheinland-Pflz	444	258	88	97	1	-	7,552	8,492	0.88	1.06
Saarland	55	31	3	20	1	-	2,500	2,500	1.33	3.40
Schleswig-Hls	313	211	19	81	1	1	12,172	12,333	0.91	1.15
Western Germany	6,746	4,502	596	1,559	58	31	126,940	134,149	0.93	1.08
Berlin	37	3	-	32	-	2	40	40	-	-
Brandenburg	153	140	3	10	-	-	33,403	33,403	2.27	2.57
Meckl.-Vrpm.	399	391	-	8	-	-	81,448	81,448	9.00	6.20
Sachsen	122	59	2	61	-	-	5,135	5,135	0.76	0.57
Sachsen-Anhlt	95	81	2	12	-	-	12,889	12,889	1.87	1.13
Thueringen	166	86	1	29	-	-	12,284	14,441	1.94	1.56
Eastern Germany	922	760	8	152	0	2	147,356	147,356	3.32	2.67
Total	7,668	5,262	604	1,711	58	33	281,505	281,505	1.32	1.58
* A: Farmers, B: Processors, C: Importer

** farm area, including ways, house, etc.

Source: Bundesanhalt fuer Landwirtschaft und Ernaehrung (BLE), appeared in Oekologie und Landbau, 1995(4)

So far, the channels and places where organic products are available are as follows:

affiliated shops

subscription

common purchase groups formed by consumers, so-called food-coops

organic-product markets

organic-product fairs

bio shops, and health foods stores

common-marketing organization

large consumers-restaurants in institutes, schools, and hospital, etc.

restaurants

There is a new trend of organic agriculture. A chain supermarket, Kaiser‘s, fills its racks with organic products. In the meantime, frozen organic products have been put on the market. How these new ways of marketing will affect organic agriculture can not be concluded yet until further observation and research.

Organizations

There are many agricultural organizations associated with organic agriculture directly or indirectly, but we will introduce the associations in which farmers are involved, and the organizations which have made a great contribution to organic agriculture only. Figure 1 shows the structure of the organizations of organic agriculture in Germany. The associations are introduced in three subsections: (1) the nine main farmers‘ associations, (2) the institutions of inspection, marketing and extension, and (3) national and international organizations.

Thanks to the efforts made by private associations of organic

International level

National level

Regional

level

State level

Figure 1 The organizations of organic agriculture in Germany

agriculture, governments, research units, and academies, organic agriculture in Germany has been developing fast.

Farmers‘ Associations

The development of organic agriculture has closely connected with associations of organic agriculture. The first organic agricultural association, Demeter, was set up in 1924. After Demeter, there have been a variety of associations one after another; some regional and some nationwide with branches set up in different states. Some specialize in certain production, and some do not. The aim and interest of these associations are as follows:

to develop and extend the technology of production and preparation of organic products (The term ‘preparation’ here and after refers to storing, processing, packaging, and shipping.)

to give advice on how to produce and prepare organic agricultural products

to regulate agricultural production and preparations

to control the standard of production and preparation of organic agricultural produce by labeling system

to increase sales by promoting and expanding the markets of organic agricultural products

to help farmers to be engaged in public relations by providing the public with information

to be on behalf of farmers to deal with consumers, and to communicate with academic and other organizations

to obtain benefits for farmers by communicating with authorities.

Each association regulates and controls agricultural production on its own. The farms are required to be inspected at least once a year. Only those products that are produced in accord with the regulations of the association can be labeled with the trademark of the association. The issues concerning guidelines, control and labeling system will be discussed in sub-section 2.3.

In 1988, the League of Organic Agricultural Associations (Arbeitsgemeinschaft Oekologischer Landbau e.V., in short, AGOEL) was formed, and now, the League contains 9 associations. Table 5 presents the development of the associations of organic agriculture in Germany.

The following is the introduction to the nine organic agricultural associations. The whole name is presented in《》. The number in （）is the year that the association established. The trademark of the association is placed in the box on the right-hand side. Most associations publish their own periodicals.

Demeter 《Die Biologisch-Dynamische Wirtschaftweise》(1924)

Demeter is the first agricultural association in Germany. It was set up in 1924 by Dr. Rudolf Steiner (1861-1925), an educationalist in agriculture. Dr. Steiner worked for agriculture based on his knowledge of natural science and humanism. He advocated that agriculture was the practice of farming which should harmonize with the environment and cosmos. Therefore Demeter views agricultural production differently from other associations. It considers the essence of some kinds of plant and the movement of the sun, the moon, and other planets help the growth of crops. There are Demeters in many other countries, such as, Australia, Switzerland, Austria, Denmark, and Hungary.

Table 5 The development of the associations of organic agriculture in Germany

Association	1989	1990	1991	1992	1993	1994	1995	1996
No. of Farm
Demeter	887	958	1,098	1,200	1,234	1,123	1,191	1,211
Bioland	1,060	1,151	1,623	1,919	2,146	2,548	2,662	2,838
Naturland	152	301	401	522	544	647	766	909
Biokreis	93	122	150	142	141	148	158	150
ANOG	73	76	78	78	74	90	96	101
BOEW	65	77	76	143	162	234	232	217
GAEA	－	－	－	－	84	134	153	177
Oekosiegel	－	－	－	－	－	17	17	16
Biopark	－	－	－	－	－	－	－	449
Total	2,330	2,685	3,426	4,004	4,385	4,941	5,275	6,068
Area

(Hectare)
Demeter	17,146	19,132	23,914	28,067	30,875	34,745	38,486	42,396
Bioland	20,000	23,861	36,343	47,098	60,313	76,522	84,750	93,149
Naturland	2,720	7,370	10,830	18,278	20,270	25,116	32,027	40,418
Biokreis	1,282	1,788	2,151	2,055	2,414	2,260	2,393	2,569
ANOG	825	1,682	2,009	2,695	3,032	3,266	4,355	4,796
BOEW	420	462	285	540	669	957	966	977
GAEA	－	－	－	－	9,667	17,887	20,830	25,694
Oekosiegel	－	－	－	－	－	958	918	817
Biopark	－	－	－	－	－	－	－	99,668
Total	42,393	54,295	75,532	98,733	127,240	161,729	184,725	310,484
Source: Oekologie und Landbau, 1996(2)

Bioland 《Der organisch-biologische Landbau》 (1971)

Bioland has the most membership among organic agricultural associations. There are 2,838 member farms, occupying 46.77% of the total member farms of the League of Organic Association (AGOEL).

Naturland (Verband fuer naturgemaessen Landbau) (1982)

Naturland is another organic agricultural association whose farm members have increased most. From 1986 to 1996 the number of member farms has become approximately as much as 6 times. Naturland‘s base is in Germany, but it also has about forty (Naturland) project farms distributing in developing countries of Asia, Middle and South Americas, and East and South Europe. These farms grow plants that are not grown in Germany, such as tea, coffee, rice, nuts, olive, sugar cane, and some herb. These farms do farming traditionally but without violating the principles of organic agriculture, so they may pioneer organic agriculture in the Third World. Naturland projects not only promote organic agriculture in the Third World, but also provide German consumers with trust-worthy foreign products.

Biokreis e.V 《 Biokreis Ostbayern 》(1979)

Biokreis e.V. is an organic agricultural organization based in East Bavaria. Its aim is not only to guide and control organic production, but also to strengthen contact between farmers and consumers, and so four fifths of its members are consumers.

ANOG 《Arbeitsgemeinschaft fuer naturnahen Obst-, Gemuese- und Feldfrucht-Anbau》(1962)

At the beginning, its member farms are of vegetables, fruit, and crops, but now there are animal farms joining in it. Although the number of member farms grows slowly, the average area of member farms has increased most quickly.

BOEW 《Bundesverband Oekologischer Weinbau》 (1985)

BOEW is another association which produces grape wine mainly, and the average area of member farms is of the least, only 4.5 hectares only.

Oekosiegel (1988)

Although Oekosiegel has only 16 member farms in the Northern Germany, it is a well-organized organic agricultural association.

GAEA《Die Vereinigung Oekologischer Landbau》(1989)

Eastern Germany is the origin of organic agriculture. When it was under the rule of communism, organic agriculture was not practiced except on one farm whose owner was an Austrian. GAEA, the first organic agricultural association in Eastern Germany, was set up during the communist rule in May of 1989, short before reunification of the East and West Germany. Organic farms in Eastern Germany have been increasing after the reunification, and they are operated on a larger scale due to the existence of farm cooperatives.

Biopark (1991)

Biopark, the latest member association of organic agriculture of AGOEL, is set up in 1991, and has members from six states in the Northern Germany. Biopark is the association with the largest total area of member farms, close to 100,000 hectares. The biggest member farm covers 3,730 hectares. Most member farms are chiefly engaged in raising livestock.

Institutes of Inspection, Extension, and Marketing

There are control stations affiliated with some farmers( associations of organic agriculture to inspect and certify production and preparation of products. For example, the biggest inspection company in Germany, Alicon Co. Ltd., is formed by Bioland. Some associations form companies to promote sales of organic produce from their member farms. Examples of such companies are Biopark Market Co. Ltd. and ‘Oeko-Flur‘ Co. Ltd. of the associations Biopark and GAEA respectively. Some associations also form trade mark companies, which are authorized by the associations to entitle the processing factories to use association mark. Biokreis has a such company, named ‘Biokreis-Marken-GmbH. To sum up, the associations of organic agriculture function in various ways.

There are extension and guidance centers established by most associations in different parts of Germany. In the places where there are no such centers, farmers can join local extension institutes of organic agriculture to obtain information and advice. Oeko-Ring in different states of Eastern Germany is a fine example of such institute. Since the number of organic farms was increasing, and extension & guidance centers have not been established by the associations of organic agriculture, Oeko-Ring has been undertaking the job of testing, extension, and guidance. Oeko-Ring also holds seminars and fairs, give speeches, and contact with the organic agricultural associations to gather information for farmers and anyone who may be interested in it. As to the finance, Oeko-Ring is subsided by government, and receives annual fee from its members. The amount of fee each member pays is in proportion to the size of the farm.

Since organic farming is somehow difficult and risky and organic produce occupies only a minor amount, farmers prefer to get assistance and advice in production and marketing by joining the associations. The associations contribute a great deal in the development of organic agriculture, and also improve farmers‘ economic condition.

Besides the associations in which farmers are involved, there are private associations formed by consumers and environmentalists to promote development of organic agriculture and consumption of organic food.

The agricultural department of Sachsen State is the first government authority that designed a trademark for organic products produced in Sachsen, as shown in the right-hand side, and promotes organic produce of its state actively.

For education and training, there is department of organic agriculture established in many universities and institutes. The graduates may manage organic farms, or work for associations, control stations or governments.

National and International Organizations

The nine main organic farmers‘ associations stated in 2.2.1 organized into the League of Organic Agriculture (AGOEL), which is the only representative organic farmers‘ organization in Germany. The aims of the AGOEL are as follows:

to set up frame guidelines of organic production and preparation,

to inspect the operation of every organic agricultural association,

to help consumer recognize the trademarks of organic products

to do the work of public relations,

to cooperate with international agricultural organizations,

to draw and carry out projects, such as research, promotion and seminars.

Besides AGOEL, Foundation for Ecology and Agriculture (Stiftung Oekologie und Landbau, in short, SOEL), a public-interest institute, also plays an important role in the development of organic agriculture in Germany. This institute was originally established in 1962, and was reshuffled in 1975 and 1991. It merged with other two organizations into the present institute. Its main tasks are as follows:

to coordinate advice action for organic farming

to study organic agricultural theory and put it into practice

to hold seminars

to support related research and give vocational training

to publish books, the representative journal of organic farming, Oekologie und Landau, and series publications (In fact, most of the publications about organic agriculture are from SOEL)

to collect information about how to sell and buy organic agricultural products, and provide the producers, consumers and the public with the information

International Federation of Organic Agricultural Movement (IFOAM) is a global organization and is closely related with the development of organic agriculture in Germany, because its executive branch is located right in Germany. So far, it has about 500 member organizations in more than 75 nations since it was established in 1972. IFOAM organizes the international Scientific Conference every other year. The event is the major global gathering of the organic movement. The famous BIO FACH fair in Frankfurt, Germany, the largest trade fair in the world for organic food and natural products, is now under the patronage of IFOAM.

The aims of the Federation are :

to exchange knowledge and expertise among its members, and to inform the public about the organic agriculture.

to represent internationally, the organic movement in parliamentary, administrative and policy-making forums. (IFOAM has for example consultative status with the UNO)

to set and regularly revise the international ‘IFOAM Basic Standard of Organic Agriculture and Food processing’. (These standards are translated into 17 languages)

to make an international guarantee of organic quality a reality (The IFOAM Accreditation Program insures equivalency of certification programs worldwide.)

These three organizations － AGOEL, SOEL and IFOAM－have been closely cooperating among one another. All of them contribute a lot to the development of organic agriculture and have influence over agricultural policy-making in Germany.

Regulation, Control and Labeling

Before EC Regulation No. 2092/91 on organic production of agricultural products and indications referring thereto on agricultural products and foodstuffs came into force on January 1, 1993, organic farmers produce and process organic products in accordance with the regulations set by the association which they belonged to, and the organic products are labeled with the trademark of the association. Each association is in charge of the control of organic agricultural production. The guidelines on organic agricultural production of each association specify the practice, materials and preparation which should be, should avoid, or should not be applied.

AGOEL has a frame guideline to regulate member organic agricultural associations, so that there is a standard for consumers to judge.

EC Regulation No. 2092/91 on organic production of agricultural products and indications referring thereto on agricultural products and foodstuffs was published on June 4, l991, and was put into force on January 1, 1993; it has been revising till now. Organic Agricultural production has been regulated by the government since EC Regulation No. 2092/91 came into force. However, every member of organic agricultural association still produces and processes organic products following the guidelines of the association that it belongs to. Since the guideline of each association is stricter and more detailed and complete than EC-Regulation, the farming of each member will not violate EC-Regulation. For example, EC-Regulation detail has not covered regulations on animal husbandry..

According to EC-Regulation, all organic farms including those not joining any association, and processing factories are to be inspected once a year. The inspection and controlling are carried by private organizations which are approved by government.

The biggest inspection company is Alicon Co. Ltd., which is the branch of Bioland, the organic agricultural association with the most members. Alicon is independent of Bioland in business; it is commissioned to do the inspection.

Generally speaking, inspection companies check if the products meet EC-Regulation standard, or/and they can be commissioned by organic farms or processing factories to conduct the inspection according to the guideline of the association to which the member farm belongs. Therefore the organic farms or processing factories need not to pay inspection fee twice. Inspection companies also give advice on agricultural production besides inspection. The main tasks in inspecting farms include:

inspection on foot in the farm area

examining the farm building

checking the accounting with regard to production plan, sale, and purchase

The main tasks in inspecting processing factories are as follows:

to examine the place of processing and storing

to inspect the production procedure

to check if purchase conform to delivery

In order to pass the inspection, organic farmers and processor must produce and label products in accordance with the guidelines. In addition to the work on the farm, farmers need to prepare a complete plan for production, and for farm field and building, to keep account, and to make statements of purchase and delivery. Employees are interviewed as well during the annual inspection. The soil on the farm and the residue are also to be inspected when in doubt. Sometimes unannounced inspections are conducted, and if any farm fails in the inspection, it will be asked to improve or to be fined. Furthermore, there are neighbors, employees, consumers and other organic farmers keeping an eye on organic farms besides the annual inspection, so it is almost impossible for the farms to cheat. Therefore the result of the inspection is quite reliable.

IFOAM has been on its way to set basic standards for agricultural production. The contents of the standards were always a mirror of the general consciousness of its member organizations. IFOAM thinks that the standards can only be a framework or basis for national or regional certification organizations and these standards become more suitable for international regulations (IFOAM, l992). IFOAM does have a share in the establishment of EC-Regulation.

Although each organic agricultural organization has its own way to regulate organic production, the guidelines, standards, and regulations of each organization are generally similar to slight differences only. Basing on EC-Regulation and guidelines of all organic agricultural associations, and referring to IFOAM‘s Basic Standards, the main points of the rules are summed up as follows:

Principal aims

conversion to organic agriculture

conversion requirement

length of conversion period

rules for plants production

seed, mother plant, parent plant and reproductive material

manure policy

pest, disease and weed management

rules for animal husbandry

breeds and breeding

housing and welfare

veterinary medicine

rules for preparation (storing, processing, packaging and shipping)

pest control

procedure

ingredients

additive and processing aids

inspection system

government departments in charge

inspection items, procedure and frequency

inspection body and supervision

labeling and consumer information

ingredients

labeling

Making Taiwan Agriculture Organic and Sustainable

As has been stated in sub-section 1.2, Taiwan government is now dedicating to organic agriculture, because this farming system protects the environment and produces natural foods. Of course, that Taiwan will join GATT in the near future, and therefore a reformation of agriculture can not be avoided is another consideration. So far, organic agriculture is still new to either the farmers or consumers in Taiwan, and the term has not been defined clearly and completely. However, there is something Taiwan might learn from the German experience of the development of organic agriculture. In the chapter, the present situation of organic agriculture in Taiwan will be presented first; and then the opinions on the concept and definition of organic agriculture are to be pointed out; finally suggestions are made regarding the draft of Principles of Labeling and Supervision for Organic Production by Council of Agriculture.

Present Situation of Organic Agriculture in Taiwan

Since the control and labeling system of organic agricultural production has not been set up in Taiwan, organic agriculture has not been clearly defined and regulated, even though the terms such as ‘organic farm,’ ‘organic agriculture,’ or ‘organic food’ can be heard here in Taiwan. Therefore the present situation of organic agriculture introduced in this chapter may not be applied to real organic agriculture.

In order to know the farmers‘ evaluation of organic agriculture, an investigation on all 8 members of an organic farmers’ production-and marketing group and on 20 of 70 members of a conventional farmer‘ group of pumpelo in I-Lan was carried out. The result of the investigation will be discussed later.

Production

Organic farming is used chiefly in plants production. Most of the organic farms are in the form of production-and-marketing groups, and are assisted and guided by district agricultural improvement stations, local governments, farmers‘ associations, MOA International Foundation of Natural Ecology. According to the data supplied by Department of Agriculture and Forestry of Taiwan Provincial Government, there are 17 organic agriculture demonstration groups with 101 farms; data supplied by agricultural improvement stations shows there are other 29 households engaged in organic farming. Altogether there are 130 organic farms. Among the 130 farms, there are 108 fruit farms which grow citrus fruits chiefly, 13 tea farms, 7 vegetable farms, 6 rice farms, 3 pearl-barley farms, one sweet potato farm, one flower farm, and one bamboo shoot farm.

Besides the organic farms stated above, there are quite many organic farms and pseudo-organic farms not recorded, such as the organic farmers‘ group in I-Lan investigated in this study. The investigation found that only 9 of the 20 conventional farmers have heard about organic agriculture. It is found that both groups think that organic agriculture has positive influences on soil, output, product quality, harvest time, prices, returns, environment, product safety, farmer‘s health, etc. (as shown in Figure 2). But organic farmers have a more positive evaluation on organic farming than conventional farmers. The farmers of both groups think that organic farming costs more than conventional farming, especially the organic farmers.

The findings of the investigation show that any farmers who have learned about organic farming give it a positive evaluation. If organic farming is to be promoted, it is necessary to try to reduce

production cost, to establish a labeling system, and to subsidize organic farmers, so that organic products can be competitive in the market.

It is a pity that eight members of organic pomelo group use pesticides, though as little as possible. Because they do not think there is a way to prevent pests and diseases without pesticides. In fact, there are difficulties over prevention of pests and diseases in organic agriculture and most farmers tend to think that to grow crops by spreading organic fertilizer is so-called organic agriculture.

Marketing

Since there is not a labeling system for organic products, so-called ‘organic products’ may not be real ones. Consumers can only decide whether the products are organic by examining packaging and advertisement. A variety of foods such as natural food, health foods, common agricultural products, or even hydro-cultivated vegetables are considered as organic products.

On the other hand, due to the lack of labeling system and marketing channels for organic products, organic farmers have no way but to sell organic products as common agricultural products. According to the investigation on organic pomelo group in I-Lan, half of organic pomelos from the group members was not sold separately from common pomelos grown by conventional farmers. The other half was purchased by chain shores and mixed and sold with common pomelos in the supermarkets. It is obvious that there are some farmers who devote themselves to organic agriculture, but after all, their products are sold as common ones.

So far, there are quite few shops or institutes that sell organic products. The products sold in organic stores are mainly imported, and additional local organic agricultural products such as vegetables, fruit, and rice are also sold.

Women‘s League/ Environmental Protection Foundation in Taipei and Kaohsiung is an important institute which sells organic products. The League is similar to Food-Coop in Germany. The League offers the service of delivery to one of the six families as a small group.

Hsing-I-Feng is a successful chain business which not only retails but produces also. It has 6 production farms with total area 10 hectares of farm field. The fertilizer that Hsing-I-Feng uses to spray above its fields is quite special. It is a kind of fertile liquid from the fermentation and resolution of organic substances (through micro-organism).There are also underground pipes into the field soil to provide the root of the plants with enough oxygen and water. The products of the united farm are distributed to the chain stores or retailers for sale. Consumers may join the united farm, and the members have the privilege of subscription service.

Organic products are also available in other ways. Employees of organizations and institutes form food-coops to buy organic products directly from organic farmers or production-and-marketing groups.

Because of the lack of control and labeling system, matured market, and marketing channel for organic agricultural products, institutes that assist and guide organic farms, like agricultural improvement stations, farmers‘ association or MOA, play an important role in introducing and recommending organic products to consumers. The food-coops of Women’s League and institutes, play an important role in inspecting and looking for various organic products. Sometimes they take charge of packing, distributing, and delivering organic products.

Since the costs of organic agricultural products are higher than common products and the production quantity is less, direct sale may be a better way for farmers to sell organic products. Besides selling to food co-ops, there are different ways for organic farmers to sell their production directly to consumers. Some farmers operate theirs farms as leisure farms, such as Heng-Chun Organic Farm. Selling organic products in the weekend flower market is a new attempt. On January and February of 1996, Taoyuan Agricultural Improvement Station made a successful fair in Taipei Weekend Flower Market. This kind of sales may develop into weekend organic product markets like the ones in Germany. There are also some advantages in direct sale. Firstly, it can prevent the prices of organic products from rising in the process of marketing. Secondly, the direct contact between producers and consumers gives consumers chances to know organic products better, and hence build more confidence in the products.

Policy

So far, the government has not subsidized organic agriculture. However, there are still a few policies quite encouraging the farming which is friendly to the environment. For example, the construction of organic fertilizer house is subsidized. The purchase of corn, sorghum and soybean at support price is changed from 1996 to encourage rotation. Only different grains from each farm are purchased twice a year, and the single kind of grain once only. Those rice fields which are converted into green manure field and are lying fallow can receive subsidies.

For setting up the regulation, Council of Agriculture (COA) held a seminar in l995, but there were still room for further discussion. In the same year, Department of Agriculture and Forestry of Taiwan Provincial Government also held meetings separately to discuss labeling for organic produce without any conclusion because of the lack of related laws.

Institutes

So far, there are only a few organizations associated with organic agriculture. Chinese Sustainable Agriculture Association (CSAA) is an association supported by government. Its members include government officials, researchers, and farmers. Another association, MOA International, is a Taiwan branch of a religious organization of Japan. There is also a local association of organic agriculture in I-lan County with 70 member farmers. All these three associations mentioned above have not established guidelines of organic farming yet.

At present, district agricultural improvement stations have contributed to organic agriculture most, especially the ones in Taoyuan (citrus plants), Taichung (vegetables), and Hualien (rice). Township authorities of many counties, farmers‘ associations and MOA are involved in extension of organic agriculture with limited achievement, because the technology of production is not matured.

Prospective and Suggestions of the Development of Organic Agriculture in Taiwan

Consumption

In Taiwan per capita GNP has been increasing following rapid economic growth. In 1994, per capita GNP has reached US$11,604. Therefore, it is certain that people in Taiwan can afford organic products more than before. The increasing number of health food stores explains that the consumers, who are informed of the problem of pesticide residues in produce from newspaper, are now beginning to demand for chemicals-free foods, and organic produce fits their need. It can be expected that there will be great demand for organic produce.

The important consideration of Taiwan consumers in buying organic produce is that the product is safe and healthy, but the matter of environmental protection seems not to be thought of. Hence, if the sales of organic produce are to be promoted successfully, the point of being healthy and safe should be especially claimed.

Test, Research, and Extension

Considering the increasing demand for organic produce, the development of organic agriculture is comparatively sluggish, because its definition has not been clearly defined, and the technology of organic production is not mature. For example, organic farmers under the guidance of extension institute can not avoid using chemical fertilizers, even they view organic agriculture as a farming method without pesticide or chemical substance. However, as stated in 3.1.1, most farmers who have heard about or who are involved in organic agriculture give it a positive evaluation. To extend organic agriculture is a very difficult task, if technology of production can be promoted.

Besides promoting research, test, and extension of organic production, the government should try to advocate organic agriculture through the mass media to inform the public with the new idea of organic farming. In the meanwhile, the scope of researches sponsored by government should not be limited to organic production only; studies of consumption and marketing of organic produce should also be included.

Production

The average area of agricultural land is considerably smaller, about one hectare only, if compared with that of Germany. Besides, 82.5% farmers work part-time. These two facts may prevent organic agriculture from development forward, because: (1) organic farms are supposed to be self-sufficient, but farms with limited area like the ones in Taiwan are too small to live up to the requirement of self-sufficiency; (2) small farms are likely to be infected by pest diseases and chemicals from neighboring farms; (3) area of farms is too small to practice organic farming with erasable profit for full-time farmers, and part-time farmers can not make it either since organic agriculture is labor intensive. Hence to form production-marketing groups may be a solution.

So far, the farming is specialized and intensified, which need to be changed into multiple and ecological farming. Farmers may be allowed time to achieve it.

Regulation and Labeling

Since regulation on organic agriculture has not been established in Taiwan, organic produce sold in the market may, or may not be real. In order to encourage organic production and to protect consumers’ right, it is urgent to legislate regulation on organic agriculture.

In Germany and some other countries, organic agriculture is originally promoted and guided by private institutes, but in the long run, organic production is regulated under laws set by the government. The regulations help to separate organic produce with similar products, such as health foods, and to offer consumers a guarantee.

The laws of organic agriculture have been in effect in many countries, for example, EC countries and the United States. IFOAM has also established Basic Standard of Organic Agriculture and Food Processing, which can be consultative for countries when they are making related regulation. Since there are so many things Taiwan can learn from other countries‘ experience in making related laws, it is time for the government to legislate the regulation on organic agriculture and to undertake the supervision of controlling stations in order to boost organic production before the market of organic produce be taken by imported certified organic products.

In making related laws, a common trademark for organic products may also be designed. This helps consumers to recognize organic products, and the sales of which can also be promoted. So far, there is such common trademark in the countries of France, Austria, and so on. In Germany, there is a common trademark used on all organic produce of the state of Sachsen.

Regarding the regulation and labeling, the government should (1) legislate regulation on organic agriculture, (2) authorize private control stations to inspect organic production, and (3) entitle the trademark designed by the government to those farms which pass the inspections. Details about rules of the regulation will be discussed later in 3.3.

Organic Associations

Before introducing organic associations in Taiwan, let‘s review one in Germany, Demeter. Demeter is tinged with mystic color. It grew rapidly at the beginning of its establishment, but then the number and the total area of its members have not grown considerably (See Table 5). The main reason for the shrinkage of Demeter is its complex spirit for production, which makes old members turn to other association and fails to recruit new members. So far in Taiwan, MOA International is somehow similar to Demeter. MOA is a religious institute which promotes organic agriculture most actively. It is worth noting that religious institutes, which promote organic production with great religious influence and enthusiasm, may contribute a great deal in preliminary stage of the development of organic agriculture, but a long-term organic agricultural development can not just count on this kind of institutes.

Chinese Sustainable Agriculture Association (CSAA) is an organization with many specialist members. Although doing researches and exchanging knowledge are the main business; CSAA does not make it to function well in advocating the principles of organic agriculture, guiding organic production, and leading regional organic associations like AGOEL or SOEL of Germany does, because up till now there has not been any people working full-time for CSAA.

General speaking, most private institutes in Taiwan are not well organized, and consequently not independent. So organic associations can not be expected to undertake the task of setting up the regulation of organic production.

Marketing

Extension institutes in charge of assisting and guiding organic production and the common purchase groups formed by consumers are, and will be playing an important role in marketing until regulation is in force and organic agriculture is developed.

Direct sales and sales through production-and-marketing groups are feasible ways. It is also suggested that organic products and general products should be sold separately, because the former may not be favored after consumers compare the prices.

Proposal of Setting up Regulation

In April, l995, Council of Agriculture (COA) held a meeting to discuss the draft Principles of Labeling and Supervision for Organic Production without any conclusion, because those in the meeting held different views in the definition of organic agriculture, and they had various standards for regulation.

Germany has experienced organic agriculture for more than 70 years. The definition of which has been defined well, and related laws are quite complete. If we compared the concepts of organic agriculture in Germany with that of in Taiwan, it is found that the people in Taiwan seem not understand the essence of organic agriculture completely. Misconceptions toward organic agriculture are hereby cleared up as follows:

It is not old traditional farming method which employed manure as organic fertilizer; but is a scientific practice with management, which is engaged in the operation making reasonable profit, and is harmonized with the environment and ecology.

It regulates not only the stage of production but also the preparation process; not only domestic goods but also imported one.

It not only uses organic fertilizer, or even employs no pesticide to protect the environment but cherishes and nourishes all resources in an active manner.

It not only prohibits or limits chemical-synthesized fertilizer and pesticide but is against any application of genetic engineering technology, products processed with radiation, and PVC products.

It produces not only plant but also animal husbandry.

An organic farm should be operated with an effort to form an ecological system so that it can be self-sufficient. The ideal organic farm feeds the livestock with grains and hay produced on the farm, and makes its own fertilizer from legume and manure. Therefore the quantity of livestock should be in proportion to the area of the farm. Furthermore, an organic farm should try best to be self-sufficient in seeds, breeding plants and animals.

Livestock should be raised in the light of morality, and the animals should be provided with a reasonable living environment to grow naturally.

To sustain as many different species as possible is also one of the aims of organic agriculture. It avoids specialization of production. It is not suggested to extinct any kind of species, including those that are harmful to agricultural production.

Not only making profit but binding farm villages together, saving working opportunities for farm villagers, and maintaining the scenery of farm villages are also taken into consideration.

Not only the agricultural production, supply of foodstuffs, and protection of resources and the environment of its own country are considered, those of other countries are taken into account.

The organic agriculture in Taiwan still has a long way to go before it reached the goals. Fortunately, it is found that organic agriculture regulations and the standards set for organic production vary with various degrees of development. After examining the process of the making of EC-Regulation and the items of basic standards of IFOAM for individual region or country, the principles of setting up the regulation can be presented as follows:

Plant production is regulated first, and then animal husbandry.

Domestic and raw products are regulated first, and then imported and processed products are included.

Production stage is regulated first, then processing, storing, packaging and shipping come after.

Bought-in plant material and stocks are permitted in the early stage of the development or where the new product is introduced.

The tolerable amount of bought-in plant materials and stocks from either organic farms or conventional farms is decreasing in proportion to the development of organic agriculture.

A timetable for upgrading the regulations is in need. There should be some regulations easy to follow with at the beginning stage, and more detailed and restrict regulations thereafter.

There is something Taiwan can learn about from EC-Regulation when making organic agriculture laws. Referring to EC-Regulation and considering the present condition of organic agriculture in Taiwan, The following suggestions in respect to Principles of Labeling and Supervision for Organic production by Council of Agricultural are made.

Production

The present regulation on the forbidden or limited-use materials or measure is too naive. Among the prospective regulation, only one to confine to the use of synthetic chemicals－only four kinds of protective chemicals and one kind of natural pesticide are regulated.

Detailed description of organic agricultural production is not specified in the regulations.

It is suggested that rules of production be stated, and the following details may list in an appendix: (1) principle of organic production, (2) products authorized exceptionally for use, and (3) products allowed to use in production.

Preparation

Since organic food has been sold in the market and served in some restaurants, it is suggested that processed food be included in the regulation of organic production.

It is suggested that further details be given in the regulation of processing, storing, packaging, and shipping of organic products.

The product or its ingredients of agricultural origin should not be subjected to treatment involving the use of ionizing radiation.

Conversion

According to the draft for organic agriculture by COA, the farms that have not used synthetic-chemical substance for at least three years are qualified to be organic farms. The length of conversion period is far longer than EC-Regulation, at least 12 months for all products.

Organic agricultural products should not be graded according to how many requirements have been fulfilled. This will not only make control rather complex but also make consumers confused. Therefore it is suggested that only length of conversion period be regulated, and organic agricultural production must comply with the regulation during the period.

Control system

The authorities concerned should establish a standard inspection procedure containing a detail description of measures and precautions so that there is a rule for inspector body to follow.

There are to be three bodies in charge of the supervision of organic agriculture according to the draft by COA. Government authorities of agriculture, unit of agricultural technology, and district agricultural improvement stations are respectively in charge of registration, inspection and approval, and control. These three institutions are all affiliated to the government. It is suggested that the inspection be operated by private body instead of the unit of agricultural technology, so that the government authorities of agriculture will not be loaded with too much administrative affairs.

An authority responsible for the approval and supervision inspection bodies should be set up.

Not only the production in farm level, but also in preparation level, such as storing, processing, packaging and shipping should be inspected.

According to the draft, a producer is supposed to supervise his products closely until the products reach the customers. Apparently this is very unreasonable.

Farm record needs not be submitted after every harvest or transaction, but it should be examined during the routine inspection.

The frequency of routine inspection should be specified. It is suggested that the inspection be held once a year.

Label

The words used to describe organic produce should be standardized.

The processed products should be labeled with its origin, ingredients and ornaments.

The advertisement that suggests to the purchaser that the organic produce contains superior nutrition or better quality, is not allowed to make.

Conclusion

The following considerations explain the reason why Taiwan needs to develop organic agriculture. Firstly, organic agriculture does not pollute the environment, nor damage the ecology, and it provides the consumers with safe and healthy produce. Secondly, organic agriculture may reduce excessive agricultural production and save subsidies. Finally and most importantly, Taiwan will soon join World Trade Organization (WTO), and its agriculture is confronted with reformation. Organic agriculture may be an ideal alternative farming practice to keep Taiwan‘s agricultural products competitive with the imported ones. Therefore, organic agricultural can help Taiwan maintain agrricultural production to insure the food security and to protect the environment.

This study introduces the essence, related organizations, regulations and development of organic agriculture of Germany, and proposals are put forth in respect to the present condition of organic agriculture in Taiwan with a view to promoting the development of organic agriculture in Taiwan.

Germany has experienced organic agriculture for more than seventy years, and consequently the principle and technology of organic agriculture are quite well developed. According to the concept of Germany organic agriculture, organic farms should be operated with an effort to form an ecological system so that it can be self-sufficient in feeds and fertilizers. All the produce activities are not allowed to pollute the environment, destroy the ecology, exhaust the resources or abuse animals.

The organic agricultural associations of Germany have played an important role in the development of organic agriculture. The main aims of the associations are as follows:

to promote the technology of organic agricultural production, and preparation－storing, packaging, processing, and shipping,

to provide with technical guidance in production and preparation,

to institute production guidelines, to inspect, control and certify the organic production,

to promote or sell organic produce for member farms, and

to negotiate with the government authorities on behalf of organic farmers.

So far, Taiwan is in the initial stage of organic agricultural development. The law of organic agriculture and labeling system has not been established for the time being. It is suggested that the legislation be made as soon as possible for producers to follow. There are EC-Regulation on Organic Agriculture and Basic Standards for Organic Agriculture and Food Processing by IFOAM (Federal of International Organic Farming Movement) available for reference. Furthermore, the regulations of supervision should not be too strict so as to suit the developing technology of production. However, the schedule for revisions of the regulation should be specified to help advance and speed up the development of organic agriculture.

As to inspection, it should be done by private bodies. However, organic agricultural associations in Taiwan are not ready for all of the duties of testing, extension, inspection, and controlling.

As it is stated, Taiwan still falls behind in the technology of organic agricultural production. In order to promote organic agriculture, the government should finance the testing, researches, and extension of the technology of organic agriculture, and to advocate the goals and advantages of organic agriculture through the media, so as to attract more producers to join in organic agriculture production and to attract more consumers to buy organic produce at a price higher than ordinary products for the sake of food safety and environmental protection.

Owing to the growth of income and higher living standard, more and more consumers are now demanding for safe and healthy food products, so the demand for organic produce must be increasing. Because the supply of organic produce is still limited and the production costs more than ordinary production, direct sale is an advantageous way which prevents the price from going high and thus makes organic produce competitive in the market. Food-coops and supscription of organic produce have been operated in Taiwan. Exclusive shops run by farmer groups on farms or in the city, organic produce markets which may be held once a week, and leisure farms are feasible operations to promote organic produce.

Bibliography

AG(L, 1995. EU-Verordungsentwurf zur (kologischen Tierhaltung. (kologie und Landbau 4: 20

AG(L, 1995. Jahresbericht 1994 der Arbeitsgemeinschaft (kologischer Landbau e.V. AG(L.

AG(L. 1991. Rahmenrichtlinien. S(L Sonderausgabe Nr. 17.

AG(L. 1995. Rahmenrichtlinien Verarbeitung f(r Produkt aus (kologischem Landbau.

ANOG. 1991. Erzeugerrichtlinien f(r biologische Produkte.

B(ckenhoff. 1990. Wird dem alternativen Landbau in BR Deutschland die ihm geb(hrende Bedeutung beigemessen? Agrawirtschaft (39): 65-66.

Biokreis. 1993. Richtlinien f(r Landwirtschaft und Gartenbau. Biokris e.V.

Biopark. 1996. Qualit(tssicherungssystem im (kologischen Landbau. Vreband Biopark e.V.

Brady, N. C. 1990. Making Agriculture a Sustainable Industry. Sustainable Agricultural Systems. edited by Clive a. Edwards, et al., pp. 20-32, Soil and Conservation Society, USA

Brechelmacher, Steven and Helga Willer. 1995. F(rderung des (kologischen Landbaus in den einzelnen Bundesl(ndern. (kologie und Landbau 2: 26-27

Buga, Tam(s. 1995. Bestimmungsgr(nde zuk(nftiger Marktchancen ausgew(hlter ungarischer Produkt aus organischem Landbau in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland. Bonn: M. Wehle

Chao, Chen-Chin. 1994. Sustainable agriculture development in Asia－Republic of China ( I ), pp.153-183, Asia Productivity Organization.

Dettmer, Jochen. 1995. Perspektiven der Landwirtschaft in Ostdeutschland. (kologie und Landbau 2:20-22

Dostal, Battina. 1995. Weiterhin starke Zunahme des (kologischen Lanbau in (sterreich. (kologie und Landbau 3:27-28

EC. 1995. Council Regulation (EEC) No. 2092/91

Hamm, Ulrich. 1994. Perspektiven des (kologischen Landbaua aus marktwirtschafter Sicht. (kologischer Landbau－Perspektive f(r die Zukunft! S(L Sonderausgabe Nr.58. pp212-234

Harwood, Richard R. 1990. A History of Sustainable Agriculture. Sustainable Agricultural Systems. edited by Clive a. Edwards, et al., pp. 3-19, Soil and Conservation Society, USA

Hirn, Gerhard et al. 1993. Die EG-Bio-Verordung －Diskussionsbeitr(ge. S(L Sonderausgabe Nr. 43

Hollingsworth, C.S., M.J. Paschall, N.L. Cohen, and W.M. Coli. 1993. Support in New England for certification and labelling of produce grown using intergrated pest management. American Journal Alternative Agriculture 8(2): 78-84

Hsiao, Ching-Kai. 1994. Sustainable agriculture development in Asia－Republic of China ( II ), pp.184-211, Asia Productivity Organization.

Hsieh, Sung-Ching. 1993. The establishment of a sustainable agricultural system in Taiwan. The establishment of a sustainable agricultural system and technology transfer in agriculture in Taiwan (collected paper of the author), Taiwan.

IFOAM. 1994. Basic Standards for Organic Agriculture and Food Processing and Guidlines for Social Rights and Fair Trad; Coffe, Cocoa and Tea; Evaluation of Inputs.

IFOAM. 1996. A growing market for organic food in Asia. Ecology and Farming 11: 6.

Knickel, K. 1995. Entwicklung konventionell und (kologisch bewirtschaft Betriebe im Zeitraum 1981-1993 in der BR Deutschland. Betriebswirtschaft im biologischen Landbau. S(L Sonderausgabe Nr. 57. pp137-149

L(nzer, I., S. Padel, H. Vogtmann, and A. Meier-Ploeger. 1992. (kologischer Landbau, Daten-Fakten-Zusammenh(nge, S(L Sonderausgabe Nr.4.

Madden, Patrick. 1988. Low-input/sustainable agricultural research and education－Challenges to the agricultural economics profession. Amer. J. Arg. Econ. 70: 1167-1172.

Merrigan, Kathleen. 1993. National policy options and strategies to encourage sustainable agricultura: Lessons from the 1990 farm bill. American Journal Alternative Agriculture 8: 158-160.

Naturland. 1994. Richtlinien f(r den naturgem((enen Landbau.

Nieberg, Hiltrud. 1995. Productionstechnische und wirtschaftliche Folgen der Umstellung auf (kologischen Landbau. Bundesforschungsanstlt f(r Landwirtschaft Braunschweig-V(lkenrode (FAL).

Pals, L.S. (kologische Wirkungen des Extensivierungsprogrammes auf die Umstellung landwirtschaftlicher Betriebe. Forschung im (kologischen Landbau, S(L Sonderausgabe Nr. 42. pp328-335

Pl(ger, M., A. Fricke und R. von Alvensleben. 1993. Analyse der Nachfrage nach Bio-Produkten. Kiel: Vauk

Raupp, Loachim. 1995. Private Forschungsinstitute zum (kologischen Landbau. (kologie und Landbau 4: 43-44

S(L. 1995. Einkaufen direkt beim Bio-Bauern.

S(L. 1995. Leben aus gesunder Erde. S(L Sonderausgabe Nr. 50

Sattler, Friedlich. 1995. Die Geburt einer Landwirtschaft der Zukunft. (kologie und Landbau 3:12-15

Schmid, Otto. 1992. IFOAM‘s Basic Standards - 15 Years Work of the Standards Committee of IFOAM. 20 Year of IFOAM. IFOAM.

Simon, Bernhard. 1995. Organisch-biologisch: Zur Geschicht des Landbaus nach M(ller-Rusch. (kologie und Landbau 3:15-18

Thomas, F. and R. V(gel. 1993. Gute Argument: (kologische Landwirtschaft. M(nchen: C.H. Beck.

Thunke, Heinz-Josef. 1995. Subventionen im (kologischen Landbau: (berlebens- oder Sterbehilfe? bio-land 6: 34-35

Vogtmann, Hartmut. 1992. (kologische Landwirtschaft. S(L.

von Alvensleben, Reimar and Marianna Altmann. 1986. Die Nachfrage nach alternativen Nahrungsmittel. Agrarwirtschaft 35: 289-295.

von Alvensleben, Reimar, Matina Pl(ger and Andreaas Fricke. 1994. Die Nachfrage nach Bio-Produkten. Agrarwirtschaft 43: 99-105.

Wehrle, F. 1995. Bio-Produkt bei Coop unter Coop NATURAplan: Aspekt der Marktentwicklung. Betriebswirtschaft im biologischen Landbau. S(L Sonderausgabe Nr. 57. pp169-172

Weinschenck, G. 1987. Der (konomische oder (kologische Weg? Agrarwirtschaft 36: 321-328.

Willer, Helga. 1995. (kologischer Landbau in Ungarn. (kologie und Landbau 3:24-26

Willer, Helga. 1995. Kontrolle der Kontrolleure. Das IFOAM-Akkreditierungsprogramm. (kologie und Landbau 4:45-46

李育義，1995，“ 當前有機質肥料之推廣及產銷概況”，農政與農情月刊 37：41-43

阮春發，1995，永續性農業的思想及其經濟層面之研究-以台灣為例，台大農經所碩士論文

孫明賢，1991，“從維護自然生態談有機農業之推展”，MOA自然農法1：20-21

陳明健，1995，台灣農業與環境保護-農業管理協議之研究 ，台大農經所

陳嘉尚，1993，台灣有機農業問題之探討，台大農業推廣研究所碩士論文

黃山內，1989，“有機農業之發展極其重要性“，有機農業研討會專集，台中區農業改良場

黃伯恩，“台灣有機農業發展概況”，MOA自然農法4:32-33

黃伯恩，“零成長與永續性農業”，MOA自然農法6:15-16

農業科學資料中心，1996，永續農業過去、現在、未來

盧兆麟、王國欽，“柚子有機栽培經驗談“，MOA自然農法12：25-27

謝森展，1992，“現代農業的缺陷對策”，MOA自然農法6:1-2

謝順景，1989，“有機農產品產銷之探討”，有機農業研討會專集，台中區農業改良場

謝順景，1989，“歐美國家之有機農業”，有機農業研討會專集，台中區農業改良場

豐年社，1993，美國俄亥俄州有機農場巡禮，錄影帶系列（一）

蘇楠榮，1989，“台灣有機農業之未來展望與研究方向”，有機農業研討會專集，台中區農業改良場

Food Ministration in Taiwan, ROC, COA, 1994

Food Ministration in Taiwan, ROC, COA, 1994

Information sheet, IFOAM, 1995.

Mokichi Okad Association

48

IFOAM

SOEL

AGOEL

Related institutions

Demeter

Bioland

Naturland

Alicon

ANOG

BOEW

Biopark

Oeko-Ring

GAEA

Biokreis

Oeko-Ring

Bioland

STUDY ON THE ORGANIC AGRICULTURE OF GERMANY AND ITS IMPLICATIONS FOR TAIWAN

Dr. Chang-Ju Huang-Tzeng

1999-09-09

oa2

宜技應經系